Paul Fussell :: essays research papers

Though Mohr doesn’t expressly say so, I believe it is safe to assume that Mrs. Hamma is a white woman of at least moderate wealth. This immediately alienates her from her students, most of whom are Hispanic, speak poor English, and are doing menial tasks for little pay. In fact, there are only two students in the class of twenty-eight who are from Europe, one Italian and one Polish. Another obvious difference between Mrs. Hamma and most of her students is gender. When she is calling on the students to speak about themselves, the text says, â€Å"There were more men than women and Mrs. Hamma called two or three men for each women. It was her way of maintaining a balance.† Much of this story is focused on using education as a means to changing social status. This is a very American idea, the thought that one can change much of their life and lifestyle by educating themselves, getting a higher paying job, and working hard. In Paul Fussel’s book Class, he proposes a new sort of class of people, those who don’t fit into the nine categories he has discussed previously in the book (top out-of-sight, upper, upper middle, middle, high proletarian, mid-proletarian, low proletarian, destitute, and bottom out-of-sight). This new class he calls â€Å"X people† and describes them as curious, creative, talented, irreverent, and self-sufficient. Those who belong to this new class do not care which class one comes from and do not care what others think of them and their relationships with people outside their class. Though Fussel’s book was written at around the same time as Mohr’s story, it is obvious that Mohr does not believe that this. Most of his characters are caught in the lower class of American immigrants. The simple fact that for the last 200 years or so, immigrants are almost immediately lumped into the lower class is somewhat hypocritical. America as we know it was founded by immigrants; yet, once these immigrants had been in the country for a couple generations, they begin to forget what it is like to be a immigrant and discriminate against newer migrant families. Even the character in â€Å"The English Lesson† who had been a professor in Poland is now under that same discrimination immigrants, and specifically non-English speaking immigrants, are faced with. In his statement about himself, he says, Since four months I am working in large hospital as position of porter in maintenance department.

ELIS and IP Models of Information Seeking

Library and information science has changed greatly since the 1970s with current research focusing more on how ordinary people behave in everyday life when seeking information (Savolainen, 1995) rather than studying the habits of professionals such as those in the legal, medical and engineering professions. With this shift in focus, new models were required to explain information seeking characteristics based on the innate differences between these two groups. One of the resulting models with great influence in the field of information science, based on its numerous citations, is the Everyday Life Information Seeking (ELIS) paradigm first introduced by Reijo Savolainen (1995). Nearly ten years later, Pamela McKenzie (2003) created a second, differing model of information seeking referred to as Information Practices (IP) using peoples’ everyday behavior as a basis. While both models are effective in their portrayal of how an individual seeks information in everyday life, ELIS and IP put a different degree of focus on stressing differing degrees of emphasis on the functions of human personality, context, and problem solving practices to explain an individual’s information seeking practices. Before comparing their similarities and contrasting their differences a brief explanation of each method and its assumptions, main concepts, the context in which they are used and can serve as real-life practice in information science will be examined. Everyday Life Information Seeking (ELIS) The ELIS model is based on the assumption that individuals have their own preference for which sources they are comfortable using and the socially conditioned patterns by which they behave. Central to the model is the concept that way of life, as defined by Savolainen, means â€Å"the order of things† (Savolainen, 1995) such as the division between one’s work and leisure time, consumption of goods and services and leisure activities. Human beings give preference to certain practices over others in going about their daily lives. This definition comes from Bourdieu’s (1984) idea of habitus, or a system of thought that is determined by social and cultural factors as well as characteristic evaluation and perception, which are individually internalized. If a person does not maintain his preferences, or â€Å"mastery of life† according to the ELIS model, his life will become disordered. When a problem out of the ordinary occurs which needs to be solved, his mastery of life will take over so as to actively seek information which is considered effective and practical to solve it. This same process occurs when an individual is seeking information. According to Savolainen, there are four types of life mastery used in the ELIS model which include optimistic-cognitive, pessimistic-cognitive, defensive-affective, and pessimistic-affective. All types exist in concert with a positive outlook from optimistic thinking on one end of the spectrum while a negative outlook as the result of dictating emotions takes place on the opposite end. An individual’s way of life directs how he will seek out information and also the converse is true: that information seeking will determine mastery of life when used in context. Components that influence context include such things as personal values and attitude, social networking, material assets, cultural and cognitive influences, as well as the individual’s current situation in life. In addition to this mastery of life typology, Savolainen (1995) states that these components have influence over how an individual will seek to solve problems. Two types of information are defined in the ELIS model. Passive monitoring of events such as news and weather reports from printed media which give an individual information regarding his everyday life is considered â€Å"orienting information†. Such everyday data is represented in the â€Å"project of life† box in the ELIS model. On the other hand, â€Å"practical information† seeking serves the purpose of finding a solution for a specific problem that interrupts an individual’s ordinary life. A personal approach to mastery of life is used to seek either orienting or passive information. Savolainen (1995) takes a leap in explaining certain aspects of mastery of life. His research assumes that all humans share an innate desire to achieve this mastery of life and that when problems occur they will naturally seek information to solve the issue. The fourth type of mastery of life, pessimistic-affective or, more literally, â€Å"learned helplessness† is described with the caveat that systematic information could play a part in the information seeking behavior, characterized by the use of emotional responses and lack of judgment, in certain individuals. Perhaps this is another type of mastery of life in and of itself. Another assumption made by Savolainen (1995) in his ELIS model is that there are only two simple divisions of an individual’s life; he is either at work or at play. There are several other categories that could be used such as those who are unemployed, those who job seeking, and those who do seasonal work (who would enjoy a huge proportion of leisure time). Therefore, in these cases, his assumptions based on a person’s division of work and leisure become moot. Savolainen (1995) admits to identifying a couple more assumptions that might interfere with his research. One is the importance of way of life as being a significant factor in information seeking behavior, confirmed by the results of studies done on blue collar workers and teachers. He also made a point to recognize that he assumed mastery of life style plays a key role in a person’s response to problems and also when they are seeking information but evidence suggests that mastery of life by itself does not always dictate behavior. Research was performed by Savolainen in Finland using a sample of the middle class and working class populace and conducting themed interviews. Eleven industrial workers and the same amount of teachers were questioned regarding their methods of seeking orienting information from the media for their everyday life needs. The subjects were asked to relate a recent problem and how they went about solving it with the results analyzed and assessed for their relevance to the ELIS model. Savolainen (1995) hypothesized that social class would be a determining factor in information seeking but found instead that this only creates an outline on which to base their way of life. Information Practices McKenzie’s (2003) more recent IP model is quite different in its approach.   Similar to Savolainen’s ELIS model, the theory behind IP encompasses a variety of components. McKenzie first came up with the ideas behind IP when observing the information seeking practices of women expecting twins. Responding to Erdelez’s 1999 (from McKenzie, 2003) challenge for â€Å"more holistic and detailed tools† to use when modeling information seekers’ behavior, McKenzie (2003) sought a more current overview of information seeking in everyday life by non-professionals as well as acknowledging that individuals often use â€Å"non-active† practices when encountering information. This led to her theory which would ultimately uncover the various ways people behave, and interact, when armed with new information. McKenzie (2003) claims there is a flexibility often used when seeking information and that the process is not totally linear. McKenzie’s IP model assumes four modes of information practice with two phases encountered within each. The individual uses flexibility and complexity and these traits are incorporated in each mode and phase. The four modes are active seeking, active scanning, non-directed monitoring and proxy. The first type of seeking identifies a source while the second is only semi-directed combined with observation. Non-directed refers to encounters with information that was not formerly expected while seeking by proxy is defined as using an intermediary source to get to the end result. At least one of these modes is used by individuals who then interact to the information with varying behavior. A breakdown in communication or a barrier to the proper connection can occur during information seeking in any of these manners. There are additional ways for an individual to connect with a source of information as well as interact with the information itself. Active seeking occurs during searches when supplemental data is uncovered, usually in response to an acute need, which was not part of the seeker’s original intent. This then redirects him to other possibilities and new information. Connection with this information gives an individual cause to interact with it by using a list of pre-formed questions or topics previously considered. By being positioned in a space where information can be shared or one can be exposed to information via electronic sources, a connection is made through the process of active scanning. Listening as well as observing others and scanning the material at hand are several methods of interaction with the information. On the other hand, non-directed monitoring is more like an unexpected, unintentional encounter with useful information during the course of everyday life. Observation and listening in on conversations between other people are ways of interacting with the information. Lastly, connection by proxy is a result of using information sources such as friends who lay claim to certain information and act as intermediaries to this information or through an interpersonal referral system. Interaction in this mode occurs when the information given takes on the form of advice, diagnosis of a problem, or instructions. Along with the ELIS model, the IP model also makes several assumptions. The four modes of information seeking seem to be rather narrow. Avoidance may be considered an additional mode, as is the case when information comes to a person who may not desire to receive it, such as a traumatic medical diagnosis. The ways of interacting with information that McKenzie (2005) outlined in the IP model are limited in scope as well. Assuming an individual uses their own context during interactions with information as she suggests, then a wide variety of personalized traits and behavior should come into play. Consequently, there cannot be a limited number of types of interactions; they would be infinite. Certainly the fact that McKenzie (2005) performed her research on a restricted number of pregnant women might influence the results and her interpretation of them. The sample subjects used in the research were a group of 19 Canadian women who were all expecting twins at the same time. Using epistemological orientation of discourse in her methodology, McKenzie reasoned that the subjects were motivated to seek necessary information (as new mothers) but also considered generically representative of their community at large. The subjects were allowed to answer interview questions freely and with no limitations and this information, along with diary entries, used to obtain the necessary qualitative data to complete the study. The expectant mothers were asked to not only share their behavior when seeking routine information but to reflect on any differences that occurred during critical incidents in the information seeking process or their interactions with it. Compare and Contrast Both the ELIS and IP models are based upon theories which attempt to explain the behavior of non-professionals in their everyday lives when seeking information of both critical and non-critical status. The two models include the key component of individual context and its power over the information seeking process. McKenzie (2003) refers in positive terms to Savolainen’s earlier research and its breakthrough concepts in the studying of information seeking behavior in non-professionals in her treatise on the IP model, giving him credit for a novel approach. The IP model, while it takes note of the role of individual context, does not offer any further elaboration on the plethora of these factors that most likely exists. While McKenzie (2005) refers to individual context, she does little more than that in using it to explain behavior. Conversely, the ELIS model revolves around the theory of individual context and a person’s social standing, morals, values, attitude and current life situation. These factors are obviously an integral part of how a particular person seeks information as well as how he orders his life. In terms of the importance of context, Savolainen’s ELIS model has included a richer diversity of theory into the concept, which is one of its strengths. Both McKenzie (2003) and Savolainen (1995) include mention of an individual’s personality traits in explaining their information seeking behavior. This factor obtains importance as a part of mastery of life typology in the ELIS model in its references to characteristics of optimism and pessimism in the first two types, explaining positive or negative reaction to information that is found during a systematic and cognitive-oriented approach. His mastery of life, too, is reflected in this personality trait, extending it to other applications. The use of emotion as a response to the life process and problem solving characterizes the third and fourth types of mastery of life; people who fall into these categories do not think logically about their behavior. Thus the ELIS model can be considered to contain psychological theory in addition to theories regarding information seeking behavior. The IP model, on the other hand, assumes an individual patterns their behavior based on personality traits without actually furthering understanding on this dimension, merely stating that users connect with information through very active or less direct modes. Interactions that occur are the result of using both cognition and emotion in seeking information. There must first be an individualistic understanding of information to allow for active seeking and scanning. Non-directed or proxy modes are used by those who interact as a result of emotion. Using Savolainen’s (1995) fourth mastery of life type as a comparison, it would leave no other option but to consider the pessimistic-affective type to use the proxy mode due to the fact that he â€Å"does not rely on his abilities to solve everyday life problems†, according to McKenzie. Those who are considered systematic personalities, however, may also use the monitoring and proxy modes. Both the ELIS and IP models are also alike in their treatment of information seeking techniques and practices. While each employs its own terminology in explaining information seeking behavior, many of the concepts are similar. For instance, with the ELIS model, Savolainen (1995) explains that people seek information on an everyday basis to orient aspects of their lives by using passive monitoring to monitor its passage. In the IP model, this concept is similar to what McKenzie (2003) terms passive monitoring and in fact she makes reference to this likeness in her research. Practical information is explained by both models also. The ELIS model refers to this as information sought in use of a problem. In the IP model, this same concept is referred to as the intermediary or proxy method of seeking information. McKenzie (2003) offers further insight by defining this process as a way of gathering information from friends or other personal sources. The ELIS model simply fails to describe this. Conclusion There are significant factors available in study of both the ELIS and IP models which aid in further understanding of how ordinary people search for information during the course of their everyday lives. As Savolainen (1998) suggests, mastery of life typology can be employed in the understanding of how people use their own context to perceive information as well as their perception of how competent they are in performing a search. Both models are relevant as use in deeper investigation into specific populations which exhibit unique behavior. Future research to delve deeper into the context concepts of the ELIS model would be beneficial. Additional study of individual concept and interaction behavior based on the IP model are also warranted based on the ability to further pinpoint motivation in information seeking. While the gap in more comprehensive research exists, the concepts in both the ELIS and IP models are relevant and valid as an aid for those studying Information Science as well as in other areas of study of human behavior including sociologists and psychologists. It will be exciting to find what further insights are gained from future exploration of both Savolainen’s and McKenzie’s models on information seeking behavior.   

Movie Review Inception

Movie Review Essay â€Å"Inception† is a 2010 science fiction summer blockbuster filmed in various locations, such as Tokyo, France, Los Angeles, the United Kingdom, and Canada. The box office hit was directed by London-born Christopher Jonathan James Nolan, who is well-known for the cult classic, â€Å"Memento†, and his â€Å"Dark Knight† films. Along with American cinematographer, Walter â€Å"Wally† Pfister, equally well-known in his area of expertise, the motion picture has received critical acclaim. Nolan's interest in noir and abstract thought is apparent in many of his films, and â€Å"Inception† is no exclusion. As it is a film about dreams and cons, Nolan's style is incredibly fitting. Pfister, who has worked as the cinematographer for almost all of Nolan's films, adds to the movie's high quality with his characteristic use of dark tones and lighting, which only increases the movie's intrigue. Together, the two powerhouses team up once again to produce an incredible motion picture which has won numerous awards, such as the Academy Award for Best Cinematography. â€Å"Inception† is the story of a corporate spy by the name of Dom Cobb (played by Leonardo DiCaprio, who came to fame in the movie, â€Å"Titanic†). However, what is particular about Cobb is that he doesn't merely enter a company's building in search of commercial secrets. He actually enters the minds of his targets while they are asleep and extracts the data he wants via conning and deceiving. But now, wanted for murder and unable to see his children due to his circumstances, he is offered the opportunity to regain his old life if he manages to accomplish the impossible: ‘inception', the planting of an idea into a target's mind, which then takes roots and grows. Gathering a group of specialist to assist him, Cobb begins to plan inception into the mind of a wealthy businessman. The camera angles of the movie were rather simple. Most of the shots were so that the character's face was directed at the viewer while said character talked to another. On a screen, the eyes of the actor would be level with that of the audience. However, there are some scenes that are completely opposite, particularly near the latter half of the movie, where more action tended to be focused upon. Although not as common, but highly interesting, ou'd see aerial shots of the surroundings. It gave a very desolate, mysterious feel to the film, while also informing the viewer about where the characters are. I found that the camera angles were okay, with a few that exceeded my expectations. Continuity was smooth, with talking scenes being fluid and dramatic and action scenes being erratic and ever changing, as how I like my movies to be. It was what you'd expect out of the t ypical talking and action scenes. The long moments of talking or silence between characters created a sense of depth. The short moments of running or fighting allowed you to lean forward in anticipation. I felt like the continuity did what it was suppose to do. Although, there were some moments, particularly in the first half, which I felt were rather awkward. The talking scenes in the beginning were rather quick and keep changing from one character to the next, and I was so caught in trying to figure out the plotline, that I didn't even figure out the main character's name until the credits. Cutting, I noticed, was very prominent in the latter half of the motion picture. It made sense, as with the plotline and story the way it is, it definitely made the movie better as the whole. It added to the tension and sense of heart pounding â€Å"Oh-my-word-come-on-you-only-have-5-seconds-to-do-that-gah†. Not only is that, but it allowed the viewer to keep up with the characters' actions, which is very nice if you have a particular character you think is cool. I like Eames, the smart-aleck of the group, so I liked to know what was happening to him and seeing that he wasn't going to die and all that. Close-ups were generally seen in talking scenes, allowing the audience to focus on the emotions and reactions of the character. There was rarely a moment where the camera zoomed in on something that wasn't an organism, something that lived and breathed. In this aspect of the movie, I found it to be either boring or heart-breaking. In my opinion, how good the close-ups were was completely dependent on the actress and actor's ability to perform. If I became aware that they were trying to look sad, rather than felt that the character was distraught, I felt like the close-up wasn't a particularly mart move. I noticed that the composition of â€Å"Inception† was rather dark. Light was played with and created shadows that revealed parts of the character's body, while the other was engulfed in darkness. Objects were always placed far away as to create a feeling of isolation, while managing to focus in on the character the camera was directed at. I really, really enjoyed the compositi on. I believed it worked wonders for the story's overall feeling. It allowed for dark and desolate tone to be even more pronounced. Inception really loves its slow motion scenes. However, considering that it can be a rather fast-moving movie, it does have its uses. Although there was one particular scene near the beginning that made me raise an eyebrow, I found that most of them were rather cool-looking. Considering that the characters were essentially stepping into a dream world, where everything is possible, the slow motions displayed all the strange and exciting so your eyes could feast in the wonderfulness of it all. The color scheme tended to lean towards neutral, yet somehow gave off a very sharp feel to it. There was also a low contrast, although it was most apparent near the end, with a particularly monochromatic feel to it. Textures were interesting to see when things began to lead towards the rising action. As for space, I felt like there was always a foreground and background, but not so much a middle ground. I suppose this was due to the incredible amount of talking. Shape was super incredibly awesome. Then again, it's a plotline about going into the dream world, so obviously the minds behind the work would take advantage of the ability to play around with the world they created. Either way, your mouth would drop at some of the things they twisted, the architecture in particular. In fact, the architecture is one of the most interesting things in the whole movie. As stated before, the movie played around with shadows a lot. There were a lot of highlights in â€Å"Inception†, particularly on the face. The characters are always slightly off center on the screen and there are generally only one or two characters in a single shot. I like to think it just furthers the idea of the isolated feel to the movie. Buildings are towering and rather rectangle in shape, giving off a feel of aloofness. The special effects are in high gear when the characters enter the mind of the wealthy businessman. Things explode, crumble apart, and all that jazz: The essentials for any type of action movie. It's fantastic. My particular favorite is when they do these anti-gravity shots and you see the characters walking upside down and floating in mid-air. Although I found some aspects of the cinematography to be average or lacking, it fully makes up in other ways. The composition and special effects are wicked awesome and I could see why the film won an Academy Award in Cinematography.

Information systems implementation The WritePass Journal

Information systems implementation Introduction Information systems implementation IntroductionProject managementProject managerQUALITIESAbility to communicateAttention to detailsNegotiationLeadership DelegationProblem solving abilityChange-management abilityMethodologiesChallenges and techniquesFailure to manage risksInsufficient team skillsUnclear goals and objectivesCommunication deficitLack of customer and end-user involvementBibliographyRelated Introduction This assignment covers the essential qualities, experiences and methodologies that a project manager should possess in order to plan execute and close a project. It also covers the challenges faced and the the techniques needs to resolve those challenges. Project management Project management is the process by which projects are defined, planned, monitored, controlled and delivered such that the agreed benefits are realised. (Association of project management) It is the term used to describe the application of knowledge, skills, tool and techniques to project activities in order to meet or exceed stakeholder’s needs and expectations from the project. Project manager Is the individual in charge of the progress and performance of the project, on behalf of the owner of the project. A project manager is a professional in the field of project management. Project managers are responsible for planning, execution, controlling and closing of the projects; typically relating to IT, construction, computer networking, telecommunications and software development. QUALITIES Following are some of the essential qualities that a project manager should possess in order to manage a project successfully. And the details of the methodologies and experiences used by successful project managers in achieving the desired results from a project. Without having these qualities, experiences and applying these methods the desired objectives of the projects are not likely to be achieved. Ability to communicate A project manager must be a good communicator, without effective and on time communication of the tasks with the team members, suppliers, subcontractors, top-management, clients and other stakeholders the project is bound to fall behind schedule. Effective and timely communication is a key to teamwork, if the tasks are not agreed and assigned to team members, and time to time assistance is not provided the project is likely to take longer time to complete. A high level of communication is crucial at the early stage of the project to establish good working relationship within the team as well as setting and agreeing the expectations with the client. Project manager can involve the team members in decision making to ensure that they own the decisions and give their best to make the project work as per plan. (Management-Hub, 2011) Communication is vital for the progression of the project, identification of potential problem, generating solutions, keeping up to date with the customer requirements and perceptions of the team. All these tasks require good amount of oral communication that is why good managers spend more time on listening than talking. A good project manager should visit all the individuals at work in the team; discuss any ideas or suggestions that they have in their mind on how the performance can be improved and how efficiently the project is moving forward. Attention to details A good project manager should have attention to details, as without having a detailed knowledge and understanding of the project, costly mistakes are likely to happen. As every project is unique in terms of its requirements, if the managers do not have attention to details, any slight miscalculation may cause the project to delay on scheduled time. That may mean that the project would cost more than what was originally budgeted for. For example in most of the web based projects, the clients are required to provide data. If the project manager just keeps the item as just â€Å"client have to provide product data† it would not be enough. The manager would have to keep the details of type, structure and volume etc. of the data. If the project manager does not keep these details when the data arrives it will cause delays in the project time and hence my cause the delay of the whole project. This is just one example of how the absence of details can cause delay, if the details are missing it will cost time and eventually more cost, as the longer the project takes to complete the more it will cost. Ideally a project manager has to have all the details upfront of the events to deal with the project. If the project manager relies on team members, and do not keep an eye on details him and the team members do not remind the project leader of those critical events the project is bound to go beyond the scheduled time. So to avoid any delay in time and extra costs the project manager has to keep the details of the project. (martin bauer, 2008) Negotiation Negotiation is a process of satisfying a projects needs by reaching an agreement with stakeholders. Project manager will have to negotiate on a variety of project issues including availability and level of resources, priorities, schedule, cost, procedures, and quality and people issues. The project manager may have to negotiate with someone who has no direct authority over him/her (e.g. customer) or with someone who he/she has no direct control over (e.g. consultants). The project manager should have the ability to manage the outcome of a negotiation so that the differences of each side can be kept to minimum and the conflict can be avoided. Leadership Leadership is the ability to get results from others through personal directions and influences. In project management it means influencing others through personality or actions of the project manager. Project manager alone cannot finish the whole project; it is the project team who completes the project. A project manager should have the ability to motivate and persuade the project team to create a team objective that they want to be a part of. A good project manager would have the ability to participate as well as provide consultation to the team members. A project manager should provide overall direction but should not be prescriptive or autocratic in their approach. A project manager should have skills to empower the project team members, empowerment gives them a feel that they are part of the project, and it helps keep them motivated and perform their part of the project at their best. Delegation A good project manager would have the ability to delegate tasks to team members to ease the stress created by deadlines. As delegation is based on trust, if the manager delegates the task to team members, they would know that the manager have a faith in them. It will not only make them feel motivated but also more responsible for the outcome of the project. (Buzzle, 2011) Problem solving ability Project managers inevitably face numerous problems, but a good project manager would have the ability to tackle these problems well. The project manager would encourage the team members to find out problems within their tasks on their own and try to solve them on their own. However if the problems are crucial and large the team members should report it to the project manager. The project manager then can lead the problem solving process. Effective team member would help finding out the problem and suggest the possible solutions. However being on the optimum position, the project manager would have through understanding of the ‘big picture’ that how it will affect the final outcome of the project. Change-management ability One thing is certain in every project, and that is change. Change may be requested by the customer, project team, caused by unexpected events during the performance of the project, or required by the users of the final project. Therefore it is crucial that the project manager has the ability to manage and control the change. The project manager would have the quality to keep the effect of the change on the final results of the project to minimum. Generally it depends on the time in the project life cycle when the change is identified. Later the change is identified it is likely to have more impact on achieving the project objectives successfully. Project budget and timescales are most likely to be affected by the change. If the customer demands change the manager would contact the relevant individual in the team to estimate the impact of the change on schedule and budget. Project manager then would present these estimates to the customer for approval prior to implementation of the change. Some changes are necessary as a result of unexpected events, for example material shortage or loss of a key member of team. The manager would require changing the plan to incorporate any such change. Project may need some changes as a result of final user requirements. In many projects for example in IT related projects, the project manager is not only responsible for designing, development and implementation of the new system, but also that the user accepts the final outcome of the project. This will require project manager to regularly communicate with the final user of the project during the entire project life cycle. Methodologies   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   System development life cycle Figure 01 System development life cycle is a conceptual framework use in project management; that describes the different stages involved in the information systems development, from initial feasibility study through to maintenance of the final outcome of the project. (SDLC, 2011) Below are the systems development life cycle stages: Feasibility: this stage decides on whether the project should go ahead or not. If the project should go ahead, then this stage will provide the plan for future stages. Requirement analysis and design: on this stage the requirements of the system are specified, so that a design for the development can be created. Managers on this stage analyse the requirements realistically, and engage all the stakeholders in specifying the design of the system. Implementation: once the design is decided upon the system can then be implemented. On this stage the designs are designed into codes, computer programmes are written using the coding language. High level programming like C++ and Java are used for programming on this stage. With respect to the type of application, right type of language is chosen. Testing: on this stage the programmes are tested. Programmes are written as a series of individual modules. Each module on this state is tested to ensure that they are error free before making it part of the whole programme. Then finally the system is tested as a whole, this insures that the interfaces between systems works, and the system fulfils the user requirements. Maintenance: software’s inevitably need change; once the system is delivered the system will definitely need some changes. The system should be developed to accommodate the change that is inevitable after the delivery of the system.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   PRINCE2 Figure 02 PRINCE2 is an acronym for projects in controlled environment. It’s a project management method that managers use to execute projects efficiently and effectively. Control in this context is any mechanism that is designed to ensure that the project meets its objectives. Prince2 contains a large number of control elements. Although initially it was intended to manage IT projects it can be applied to all kind of projects of all sizes. The main reason why the managers use this model is that it delivers a successful project. That is the delivery of the agreed outcome, on time, within budget and conforming to the quality standards. Below are the main features of PRINCE2. It enforces a clear structure of authority and responsibility on the project team. The structure of reporting and supervision ensures that each party has clear objectives and they are supported in achieving those objectives. It ensures the production of a number of management products associated with the management and control of the project. These include project initiation document, budget of the project, project plan and other progress reports. It includes a number of different types of plans, ensuring that all the participants in the project have a clear understanding of the tasks to be completed, the relationship between them and their roles in the task’s completion. It also provides managers with several quality controls, such as clearly defined and documented technical and management procedures. These ensure that the project tasks are completed on time and at the appropriate quality standards. (Field, 1998) Prince2 is relatively simple project management methodology in practice; following are the benefits of using prince2 It provides managers the consistency of approach Prince2 focuses on business justification It enables managers a greater control over plan by regularly reviewing the progress of the project Prince2 helps managers in engaging the stakeholders in before it is too late It helps managers as well as team members continually improve their work through sharing the lessons learned Prince2 helps establishing the competencies that are required to perform the project Six-sigma Figure 03 The process steps go by the acronym DMAIC-S which stands for Define, Measure, Analyse, Improve, control and when it is finished Synergize through the organisation. Six sigma projects can be defined as the process through with the companies can reduce defects and improve the quality of their processes. It is a process improvement and defect control methodology that has its roots in improving manufacturing and product development processes. Six-sigma is used by the project managers to improve business performance and obtain measurable financial results. For achieving organisational objective now a days projects managers use quality improvement methodologies like Total Quality Management, Total Quality Control and six-sigma across all functions throughout the project. Motorola is known for the invention and use of six-sigma, who has attained the top quality of just 3.4 defects per million in its production line. Allied signal and general electrics have also been known for the use of six sigma in their production processes, to bring the dramatic quality improvements in their operations. Six sigma helps managers improve on quality and reduce defects in the projects. Challenges and techniques   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Unrealistic deadlines Often project deadlines are set on faulty or unrealistic assumptions. Unrealistic deadlines cause stress to the managers to find the alternative ways to complete the tasks on time. This could happen mainly if the project manager is not involved in setting the delivery date of the project. Unrealistic deadlines do not only stresses the participants but also demotivates the team when they know that the deadlines cannot actually be met. (project management course, 2011) Techniques: The project manager can manage the stress through creative planning, search for the alternative ways to perform the task, and by communicating the reality to the participants of the project. An activity based technique model can be used by the manager to realistically draw up the whole lot of activities graphically. The manager would also find out what tasks are more critical for the success of the project, so that more resources and attention can be put into those tasks. Failure to manage risks Often in project plans, a list of risks is included. If these risks are not further investigated and worked on, they may become a real challenge when the risk arises. IT projects are more vulnerable to risks. Security of data, storage and integrity of data are the real challenges. If these risks are not considered fully, and the steps to control these risks are not taken the projects are likely to fail. Techniques: once the project risks are known, the project team can either make a plan of action to reduce the chances of their occurrence. Or alternatively a reactive plan can be made to deal with the consequences if the risk arises. It depends mainly on the probability and the impact it may have on the outcome of the project. If both the probability and consequences are high, the project team may choose to plan how to deal with its consequences. (project management course, 2011) Insufficient team skills In many projects most of the team members are assigned the tasks based on their availability. If this is the case they would lack the proper knowledge and skills to perform these tasks successfully. They may not even inform the project manager because of their ego that they don’t have the necessary skills to perform these tasks. And the project may suffer delay or even failure due to lack of skills in the team members. Techniques: the whole lot of skills needed for the project should be enlisted. And the team members as well as manager should be tested against that check list, to ensure that the manager and the team have the necessary skills, to perform the project tasks successfully. If some key skills are missing in the team members, the manager can send the individuals on training course or alternatively an external advisor can be hired to train a number of team member. If the skills required are one off and exceptional, the project manager may decide to buy the services of subcontractors. Unclear goals and objectives Projects often fail because of unclear goals and objective. If the project manager does not clearly communicate the goals and objectives to the team members, they would not be certain about what they are supposed to achieve. It would not only make the team members feel less motivated, but also cause the project fail to achieve its objectives. (Pmis, 2011) Techniques: it is the duty of the project manager to explain the project objectives and goals to the team. He/ she should demonstrate the importance and the benefits that the project’s success would have for the organisation and team members. This should happen at the first project meeting, and the manager should make sure that the whole team understands the project objectives. The manager can discuss with the team which parts they did not understood, so that he/she can explain it to them and make things clear. Communication deficit Many projects fail due to lack of communication, project managers and team members often do not provide enough information to enough people. Project managers often fail to call regular meetings with team members and other stakeholders due to work load and busy schedule. This eventually leaves team members with insufficient information to perform their tasks successfully. Techniques: Project documents, such as plans and budgets must be kept up to date and circulated to the team members regularly. A proper communication flow to all the participants of the project should be set including the reports status feeds etc. The project manager should also encourage open and frank discussion amongst the participants of the project both formally and informally. Lack of customer and end-user involvement Often the project team member and managers get hooked on meeting the internal deadlines, deliverables and processes but the customer and end users are left out. This leaves no input from them on the critical phases of the project. If the customers say is not involved in the project, the final outcome is likely to fail to fulfil its objectives. Techniques: the manager should arrange regular meetings with all the participants of the project including customers and end users. Regular briefings, status updates can also provide them with the information they need, so that they can give their input/feedback in the on-going planning of the project. The end users can also be invited to visit the site and request their input in the project, to ensure that the final project meets the needs of the customers and end-users. (project management course, 2011) Bibliography martin bauer. (2008, 05 25). Retrieved 05 08, 2011, from martinbauer.: martinbauer.com/Articles/Qualities-of-a-Great-Project-Manager Buzzle. (2011, 05 06). Retrieved 05 06, 2011, from Buzzle: buzzle.com/articles/what-makes-a-good-project-manager.html Management-Hub. (2011, 05 05). Retrieved 05 05, 2011, from Management-Hub: management-hub.com/project-manager-qualities.html Pmis. (2011, 05 05). Retrieved 05 05, 2011, from Most common challanges of projects: pmis.co.uk/what-goes-wrong-with-projects.htm project management course. (2011, 05 04). Retrieved 05 04, 2011, from Top 10 project management challenges: http://projectmanagementcourse.com/project-challenges.html SDLC. (2011, 05 03). Retrieved 05 03, 2011, from SDLC: startvbdotnet.com/sdlc/sdlc.aspx Field, M. a. (1998). Project Management. In M. a. Field, Project Management. London: International Thomson Publishing. Maylor, H. (2003) Project Management. Ft Prentice Hall. Gido, J.and Clements, J. (1999), Successful Project Management. The open university. London.

Resistant reading to Al Gores documentary An Inconvenient Truth

Resistant reading to Al Gores documentary An Inconvenient Truth Attention all rational, clear thinking people here before me. Al Gore is back, and he is crazier than ever. I am here today to speak to you about the relentless advertising campaign Gore has instigated in an attempt to help revive the public support for his failed attempt to convert the world to his irrational, science fiction fable of manmade global warming, in his documentary An Inconvenient Truth. Many people have been inundated with an onslaught of Gores cleverly marketed commercials that have attempted to persuade you and me to ignore the true scientific facts and evidence, in hopes that we will support his misguided views on manmade global warming. For many years the lies, hype, hypocrisy and hysteria surrounded by Gores fallacy of manmade global warming has done nothing but instil fear and anger into the eyes of innocent people who unfortunately, have little knowledge of our world and its state.Al gore giving his global warming talk in Mountain...Within the documentary, Al Gor e misleads his audience by presenting rather contradictory evidence that either backs up his own blatant lies or is missing vital pieces that make the puzzle and disagree with his theories. Along with providing the viewers with misleading evidence, Gore has also developed a keen likeness of emotive tactics, using many visual and audio visual techniques in an attempt to enthral you all with his utter lies and rubbish.I would first like to start of today with Al Gore's presentation of evidence, which plays a major role in his documentary. Throughout the film, Gore has used a wide range of facts, images and statistics that consequently support his own claims and inconvenient theories. However, when digging deep to find the cracks and crannies that appears in his slideshows, it is clearly evident that he has bluntly manipulated scientific proof to justify his...

A Hardbound God in Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit

A Hardbound God in Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit A woman climbs into the pulpit and begins to preach. Her words are persuasive and moving, and many believe that she speaks from the Spirit. She is a woman of faith who longs to fulfill her mother’s desire for her to become a missionary. She is smart and she is pious. And according to her congregation, she is an abomination. This gifted preacher is Jeanette, the protagonist in Jeanette Winterson’s â€Å"quirky, unconventional, and often comic† novel Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit (Merriam-Webster 1207). As was Winterson herself, the book’s protagonist is raised in a climate of religious fanaticism. Her family’s DEEDS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT tablecloth is only one indication of its unswerving devotion to biblical fundamentalism. But just as the word Bible means not â€Å"a book,† but â€Å"a collection of books,† so Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit is not a story but a collection of stories. Ranging from the wry to the fanciful, these related anecdotes tell the tale not only of Jeanette’s life, but also a tale about storytelling itself. Through the postmodern use of story frames, Winterson both constructs and deconstructs her own narrative, and in doing so, she builds Jeanette an escape hatch from the snares of religious zealotry. Oranges is a book brimming with religious symbolism. Most obviously, the chapters are built on a biblical armature, each named for a book of the Bible. In the first chapter, Genesis, Jeanette tells of her Messiah-style birth: Her mother, not wanting to conceive a child in the typical fashion, â€Å"followed a star until it came to settle above an orphanage, and in that place was a crib, and in that crib, a child. A child with too much hair† (Winterson 10). But there the symbolism only begins. Jeanette says that her mother â€Å"took the child away for seven days and seven nights† (Winterson 10). The phrase echoes a biblical passage—â€Å"So they sat down with [Job] upon the ground for seven days and seven nights† (Job 2:13)—and includes the symbolic number seven, the number of â€Å"completion and perfection† (Ferguson 154). The mystical nature of the number is of ancient origin (Sahibzada) and also occurs elsewhere in the novel, as when Past or Finch ask the young Jeanette how old she is and she replies, â€Å"Seven† (Winterson 11). â€Å"Ah, seven,† he says. â€Å"How blessed, the seven days of creation, the seven-branched candlestick, the seven seals† (Winterson 11). But also how cursed, he thunders, because â€Å"the demon can return SEVENFOLD† (Winterson 12). And indeed it does return sevenfold, according to the pastor, when Jeanette is revealed for the second time to be a lesbian (Winterson 131). At the same moment, â€Å"seven ripe oranges† appear on the windowsill (Winterson 131). Seven is also, incidentally, the number of the gifts of the Holy Spirit, of the deadly sins, and of the cardinal virtues. Some of the novel’s biblical allusions are more direct, like the amusing reference to Elsie’s three mice in a fiery cage as Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego (Winterson 31)—three figures from the book of Daniel—and the same reference to name to the sorcerer’s three ravens (Winterson 145). But some of the book’s biblical allusions are more subtle: â€Å"And so, being sensible, the collector of curios will surround himself with dead things, and think about the past when it lived and moved and had being† (Winterson 95). The reference is to Acts: â€Å"For in him we live, and move, and have our being† (Acts 17:28). This weaving of religious words and symbols into her novel is no doubt a byproduct of Winterson’s evangelical upbringing. Her parents belonged to the Pentecostal denomination, one that believes that the Bible is literally true in all things—that it is â€Å"inerrant† (United Pentecostal Church International). In declaring the Bible inerrant, the church makes it a substitute for God—a form of idolatry called â€Å"bibliolatry† (Gomes 36). As John Shelby Spong says in his book Rescuing the Bible from Fundamentalism, this is a comforting belief: Those whose religious security is rooted in a literal Bible do not want that security disturbed. They are not happy when facts challenge their biblical understanding or when nuances in the text are introduced or when they are forced to deal with either contradictions or changing insights. The Bible, as they understand it, shares in the permanence and certainty of God, convinces them that they are right, and jus tifies the enormous fear and even negativity that lie so close to the surface in fundamentalistic religion. For biblical literalists, there is always an enemy to be defeated in mortal combat† (Spong 3). When Jeanette’s lesbian love affair with Melanie comes to light at church, Jeanette becomes an adversary in this mortal combat. Even as recently as 1977, the Pentecostal Church declared that it disapproved of â€Å"liberal groups within Christianity who are accepting ‘the so-called gay-rights movement as a legitimate lifestyle† and condemned homosexuality as â€Å"vile, unnatural, unseemly and an abomination in the sight of God† (ReligiousTolerance.org). The denomination’s words here are taken from Paul’s epistle to the Romans (Romans 1:26-27). Peter Gomes, the chaplain at Harvard College, explains views like this one in terms of fear. Fear is â€Å"at the heart of homophobia, as it was at the heart of racism,† and religion is â€Å"a moral fig leaf that [covers] naked prejudice† (Gomes 166). Gomes adds that â€Å"no credible case against homosexuality or homosexuals can be made from the Bible unless one chooses to read scriptur e in a way that simply sustains the existing prejudice against homosexuality and homosexuals. The combination of ignorance and prejudice under the guise of morality makes the religious community, and its abuse of scripture in this regard, itself morally culpable† (Gomes 147). Jeanette’s congregation responds to news of her ongoing homosexuality by rethinking her role in the church overall and prohibiting her from having â€Å"influential contact† with the other parishioners (Winterson 134). Here again, they use the Bible to support an existing prejudice: â€Å"The real problem, it seemed, was going against the teaching of St. Paul, and allowing women power in the church† (Winterson 133). The Bible does say, after all, that â€Å"it is shameful for a woman to speak in church† (1 Corinthians 14:35). Jeanette’s mother is no doubt thinking of this verse and others like it when she stands up in church and says that â€Å"the message belonged to the men† (Winterson 133). It would seem to be an occasion of moral clarity, one that would appeal to Jeanette’s mother, who â€Å"had never heard of mixed feelings. There were friends and there were enemies† (Winterson 3). And Jeanette had become the enemy. Convinced that it is possible to love another woman and God at the same time, Jeanette ultimately responds by leaving the congregation and setting out on her own. But Jeanette the character is also Jeanette the author: Winterson’s book is largely autobiographical. The author Jeanette writes a book that questions the very act of storytelling. Its postmodern conceit includes frames not only from her own life but also from the Arthurian legend and other apocryphal tales. By including these fanciful elements in her narrative, Winterson deconstructs the storytelling process and shows the hazard of believing in the inerrancy of any book. Her approach is not unlike that of Toni Morrison’s in The Bluest Eye. Morrison deconstructs the traditional â€Å"Dick and Jane† children’s story to show that it simply doesn’t apply to African-Americans (Morrison). But Winterson’s deconstruction effort extends to the Bible itself. As Spong says, â€Å"We need to be reminded that even in this modern world with its technological genius, there is still no such thing as ‘objective’ history† (Spong 37). By writing a postmodern book on a biblical armature, Winterson seems to say that the Bible itself is open to interpretation. Like her life story, the Bible is a narrative that should not be taken too literally. In doing so, Winterson exposes the gray areas of which her mother seems to be so fearful. â€Å"A major function of fundamentalist religion is to bolster deeply insecure and fearful people,† Spong says (Spong 5). But despite her ongoing religious fervor, Jeanette’s mother appears to have softened her position on her daughter’s lesbianism when Jeanette returns home at the end of the story. And Jeanette might well be grateful that being a lesbian has caused her to reexamine the fundamentalist faith she inherited from her mother: By running afoul of her Church’s Christian teaching, she rejects judgment over charity, and in the process becomes more Christian herself. A stanza from an old hymn captures this progressive notion: New occasions teach new duties, Time makes ancient good uncouth; They must upward still and onward Who would keep abreast of truth. James Russell Lowell, 1845 As Oranges comes to a close, the biblical naming of the book’s chapters is at its most poignant. Consider the familiar â€Å"Song of Ruth†: Whither thou goest, I will go; and where thou lodgest, I will lodge: thy people shall be my people, and thy God my God† (Ruth 1:16) This text, sung at so many heterosexual weddings, is a biblical song that—although few realize it—is sung by one woman to another woman. No longer wanting to pursue a traditional heterosexual marriage, Ruth says these words and persuades Naomi that they should be together. In calling this final chapter Ruth, Winterson sheds new light on the notion of biblical literalism. Jeanette’s mother had hoped her daughter would become a missionary, and so she does—a missionary for understanding. WORKS CITED Gomes, Peter J. The Good Book: Reading the Bible with Mind and Heart. New York: Wiliam Morrow and Company, Inc., 1996. Merriam-Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature. Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam-Wester, Inc., 1995. Morrison, Toni. The Bluest Eye. New York: Plume, 1994. ReligiousTolerance.org. â€Å"Homosexuality and the Pentecostal Movement.† www.religioustolerance.org/hom_upci.htm. Accessed May 8, 2003. Sahibzada, Mahnaz. â€Å"The Symbolism of the Number Seven in Islamic Culture and Rituals.† www.wadsworth.com/religion_d/special_features/ symbols/islamic.html. Accessed May 8, 2003. Spong, John Shelby. Rescuing the Bible From Fundamentalism: A Bishop Rethinks the Meaning of Scripture. San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1991. United Pentecostal Church International. www.upci.org. Accessed May 8, 2003.

Postmodernism in European and American history Essay

Postmodernism in European and American history - Essay Example The essay "Postmodernism in European and American History" focuses on postmodernist features and how they are recognizable in the contemporary society. Modernism lasted till the World War II and was superseded by a new movement called Postmodernism. Postmodernism is a diverse set of ideas, concepts, models, that emerged â€Å"as a reaction against modernism or as a natural evolution of modernism† in the 1950s after the Second World War. Postmodernist concepts not only projected themselves in the fields of art and literature but also in other areas like architecture, sociology, technology, economics, religion, and communication, thereby on the whole of the society. This influence of postmodernism is continuing even now and so this paper will analyze how the postmodernist features are still recognizable in the contemporary society, from the perspectives of postmodernist thinkers. Jean Baudrillard, French sociologist and a leading postmodernist thinker, was well known for his med ia related theory of â€Å"hyperreality† and â€Å"Simulation†, and how it impacts the society. According to Baudrillard, because of hyperreality created by the media, people in the society are not able to tell what is reality? what is fiction or what is created? It is a â€Å"theory that modern man can no longer tell what reality is because he has become lost in a world of "simulacra", images and signs created and presented as "real" by the mass media†.Baudrillard further argues that mass media has taken the role of ‘God’.